JEAIL > Volume 19(1); 2026 > East Asian Observer
Research Paper
Published online: May 30, 2026
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.14330/jeail.2026.19.1.11

Surviving Great Powers: Kedah and the Practice of Sovereignty under International Law

Milda Istiqomah & Mohd Hazmi Mohd Rusli & Dhiana Puspitawati & Prija Djatmika
Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia
USIM, Bandar Baru Nilai, 71800, Nilai, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia
Corresponding Author: hazmirusli@usim.edu.my

ⓒ Copyright YIJUN Institute of International Law
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/liceInha University Law School, 100 Inharo, Michuhol-gu, Incheon 22212 Korea. / nses/by-nc/3.0/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract
This essay discusses centuries of resistance of the Kingdom of Kedah against foreign intervention, surviving regional and global powers. Drawing from historical practice, the article argues that Kedah traditionally fulfilled the core requirements for recognition as a sovereign state under international law, including defined territory, permanent population, effective governance and the capacity to conduct external relations. This article concludes that Kedah was in fact a sovereign nation before it was occupied following military aggression by Siam in 1821 and laterplaced under British protection in 1909. Departing from conventional colonial historiography, the article re-examines Kedah’s past through the perspectives and political experiences of the indigenous polity rather than through British imperial narratives. Kedah’s ability, over several centuries, to avoid permanent annexation despite sustained pressure from neighbouring powers constitutes a notable case of small-polity survival and sovereign agency that warrants re-examination within the framework of international legal history.

Keywords : Sovereignty, Suzerainty Kedah, British and Siamese Intervention, Occupation, International Law

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